Foreign Policy
How a country deals with other countries. A country’s foreign policy also called the ‘international relations policy’ I wonder if there are any young lawyers out there looking to make a name for themselves in a very big court case. I mean after all - what could be bigger than suing the Australian government for insider trading?
Foreign policies are designed to help protect a country’s national interests, national security, ideological goals and economic prosperity.
An entire range of factors relation to those other nations – including economics, political, social and military – is evaluated and monitored in attempts to maximise benefits of multilateral international cooperation.
Plans by which a nation seeks to manage its relations with other nations. Efforts to ensure cooperation and friendship with other nations. Can be assertive and resisting, or rejecting another nations policies.
Independent Nation
1. Own elected government in 1901
2. Government not appointed by other countries
3. Economy – England main trading partner until the 1940s
4. Own foreign policy
5. Not ordered by other nation beginning 1941
6. Able to defend ourselves since the early 1900s
What Determines a Country’s Foreign Policy?
1. Civil War
2. Military strength
3. Type of Government – Liberal/Labor
4. Economy
5. Opponents
6. Security
French revolution and Napoleon: Britain was constantly at war with the French until 1818
6. Security
7. Human rights
Major Themes of Australian Foreign Policy
1. Fear of Invasion
France:
Major Themes of Australian Foreign Policy
1. Fear of Invasion
France:
French revolution and Napoleon: Britain was constantly at war with the French until 1818
Colonists were terrified when French ships appeared near Port Jackson.
France had colonies in the Pacific.
Russia:
Russians were expanding into Asia and they clashed with Britain on the Indian boarder. 1854-1856 Crimean War.
Australians built fortifications to repel attacks in NSW, Victoria and South Australia.
Remained a threat until Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905
Chinese:
Feared and despised during the 1850s gold rushes as they were more successful and prepared to work for lower wages.
Known as the yellow peril.
Germany – the Hun:
1884 Germany annexed Papua New Guinea which greatly concerned Australia.
Wasn’t considered an enemy until the First World War.
Red Menace - Russia:
When the Bolsheviks came to power in Russia, Australia was fearful of being one of the Bolshevik’s objectives in a worldwide Communist revolution.
Germany – Nazis:
1939 Hitler invades Poland and Australia fears that if Britain was defeated the Nazis would dominate the world.
Japanese:
After defeating Russia in the Russo-Japanese war, Australia perceived a direct threat from Japan.
Australia fear their aggressive designs, but it wasn’t until the Second World War that the threat became a reality.
3. Dependence
Timeline
1788-1901
Greatly dependent on Britain for investment in business, education, administration, structures, language and literature. Britain was our major trading partner.
Australia had the same national anthem and leaders appointed by Britain.
Australia feared attack by France, (Napoleonic wars) Germany after its unification and the Russians (Crimean War). Fortifications built in Sydney harbour, Victoria, Tasmania and Queensland.
1850s Gold rushes establishes Australian dislike of Asians.
In 1867 (Papua New Guinea) and 1872 (New Hebrides, Marshall Island etc) Australia asked Britain to annex territory in the Pacific to ensure Australian security but Britain refused.
1870 British troops withdrawn from Australian colonies as she wanted the colonies to contribute to their own defences. Contributed to Australian fear of attack.
1883 Queensland decided to try and annex Papua New Guinea for Britain but it was a failure and annoyed Britain.
In 1884 Britain annexed the south-eastern part of Papua New Guinea and Germany annexed the north-eastern part.
1901 Federation: Occurs so Australia can establish common immigration policy and speak with strong voice in international affairs to ensure Australia got what it wanted. White Australia policy begins.
Australian troops sent in 1884 to the Sudan war and in 1899-1902 to the Boer war.
Dependence:
-Totally on Britain for conducting foreign embassies and relations.
-For providing troops until 1870
-Annexing countries
-Trade and investment
Independence:
-Australia asked for what it wanted
-Federation
-Establishing the White Australia Policy.
1901 Federation:
6 Colonies formed Commonwealth of Australia,
Act of British parliament was necessary for this to occur
States control domestic affairs
Federal government controlled immigration, customs, currency and defence.
Federal Government intended to cooperate with Britain in regards to foreign policy.
1902-1914
Still greatly dependent on Britain but does stand up for herself on many occasions and takes some independent action.
1902 First Colonial Conference where an Australian PM attends. Purpose of the meeting was for each of the British colonies to state their wishes. PM Barton agreed that Australia should contribute financially to maintain a British squadron in the region - outcry as humiliating for an independent nation.
1902 Anglo-Japanese Alliance – worried Australia as both countries had promised to remain neutral if either nation went to war against a single enemy but to assist the other if more than one other country was involved. Japan was keen for alliance as she believed it would prevent Britain entering their planned Russo-Japanese war. Britain didn’t have enough of a navy to defend her empire and wanted Japanese fleet to patrol the pacific which concerned Australia.
1904-1905 Russo-Japanese war marked the end of Australian fear of Russia and beginning of fears of Japan.
1907 Colonial Conference adopted new name – Imperial Conference. Self-governing colonies called dominions. There was no real power in the conference – just an opportunity to voice opinions. As a result of the 1902 conference outcry, PM Deakin obtains ships from Britain fully funded and controlled by Australia.
1908 Deakin invited the US Pacific Fleet to visit Australia.
1909 Deakin makes defence act which made military home defence compulsory. Australian government confirmed the order of vessels for an Australian navy manned and controlled by Australia but in the war vessels are under the control of Britain.
1910 British Field Marshal Lord Kitchener visited Australia and recommended she raise an army of 80,000.
Dependence:
- Australia didn’t maintain any foreign embassies, foreign relations or alliances.
-Australian navy was very small and reliant on Britain.
-Accepted British recommendations to create army.
Independence:
-Maintained White Australia Policy despite British disapproval
-Established own navy/army
-Great White Fleet Visit
-Title of Dominion
World War 1: 1914-1918
Despite just following Britain into war, Australia establishes identity as separate nation as war progressed. Clear national identity established.
In 1914 Australia’s entry into World War 1 was automatic as soon as Britain declared war. No separate declaration made. Done with huge public support – opposition leader Andrew Fisher said Australia would support England to our last man and last shilling.
When the number of Australian deaths began to increase and the role of the British generals became known, the support for Britain started to decline and the wisdom of always following the mother country was questioned.
While Australian troops were under British command they were kept separate from the British
1915 Gallipoli and other battles saw the emergence of an Australian identity separate from Britain.
Australian troops in France and the Australian occupation force of German Papua New Guinea proved we didn’t need British leadership for our troops.
As the number of military enlistments in Australia dropped, the Australian PM Hughes decided to try and introduce compulsory military service for overseas deployment. It was presented to the Australian people in a referendum. Two were held in 1916 and 1917 but bother were defeated resulting in Australia following a different policy to Britain and the other dominions.
Due to Australia’s contribution to the war effort PM Hughes was given a seat in the war cabinet and Imperial War Conference which established the principle of consultation between Britain and the dominions.
After War Australia becomes a separate nation member of the League of Nations.
After War Australia developed and proclaimed its own foreign policies on many issues.
Dependence:
-Australia didn’t make separate war declaration
-Britain controlled Australian troops
-Hughes wanted to follow Britain with same conscription policy
Independence:
-Hughes had a war cabinet seat
-Australian leadership of troops in France and occupation of PNG
-Emergence of a separate identity
-Defeat of conscription referendum
1919 Versailles Peace Conference
Australia had separate representation at Versailles and signed the treaty as a separate nation.
Hughes ensured that Australia’s views were heard and the world stage and further enhanced Australia’s separate identity.
Australia received reparation
Hughes argued against a racial equality clause being inserted into the League Covenant on the basis that self-governing nations should be able to determine the character of their own population
Hughes also argued strongly about the fate of the German colonies – at the beginning of the war it was argued that the nations who liberated and occupied the German colony would keep it but at Versailles the concept of self-determination was very strong and resulted in occupying nations only being given a mandate over former German colonies. Australia gained a “C” class mandate over PNG
Dependence: ?
Independence:
-Separate Representation and signing of the treaty.
1920s
Britain is still our major trading partner, main source of investment and major protection. Didn’t show any great desire to take up various foreign policy initiatives offered by Britain.
1920 Australia is a separate signatory at the League of Nations.
1921 Anglo-Japanese alliance expires.
1921-1922 Washington conference and treaties (on Pacific naval development which provided for naval armaments limitations) the dominions were denied separate representation and had to be content with being members of the British delegation. Most Australians supported the treaty as they saw it as a means of committing the US to our regional security.
1922 Channel Crisis – In Turkey between Britain and a group called the Young Turks. When war appeared inevitable Britain requested Australia to supply troops but before the Australian government could reply, Britain announced that Australia had already agreed which greatly annoyed Australia.
1923 Imperial Conference – PM Bruce continued to insist that if Australia was to take a share in general defence of the empire it must have reasonable opportunity to contribute to foreign policy decisions.
1924 Richard Lasey appointed as political liaison officer to London to provide communication between the British foreign office and the Australian PM. This supplemented the usual flow of information with an Australian interpretation – highly successful. Britain sent out a member of their foreign office to Australia.
1924 Britain recognised the USSR without consultation with the dominions.
1926 Imperial Conference – Dominions insistence that their independence be defined was fulfilled and the term British Commonwealth of Nations was outlined in the Balfour Declaration.
Dependence:
-Wasn’t a separate delegation in Washington
-Britain still making foreign policy decisions
Independence:
-Balfour Declaration
-Supported Washington
-Annoyed about not being consulted
-Beginning of foreign embassies – foreign relations with Lasey
1930s
Australia begins to realise that British commitment to the pacific was fairly limited and the League of Nations was not particularly effective.
1930s steps taken to set up a diplomatic service with training of university graduates.
Fear of Japan and concern for the Mediterranean route to Britain affect foreign policy.
1931 Japanese invasion of Manchuria concerns Australia and we decide to win Japanese friendship
1931 Isaac Isaacs is the first Australia born Governor General.
1931 Statute of Westminster officially established the status of dominions as equal in domestic and external affairs to Britain. This ends British control of Australia but not adopted by Australia until 1942
1934 Minister for external affairs is sent on a goodwill mission to Japan and in 1935 a Japanese representative comes to Australia.
1937 Imperial conference decided to abandon the strict support for the League of Nations. Adopted appeasement policy. Australia suggests a Pacific Non-Aggression Pact (designed mainly to isolate Japan) but this did not eventuate.
1937 First formal diplomatic appointment with Keith Officer as adviser to the British legation to the US government in Washington.
League of Nations representatives were often members of the public or low level government officials who happened to be travelling in the region.
Dependence:
-Statute of Westminster
-Rely on Britain for defence
-Keith Officer has to go with British Legation
-No proper diplomatic service
-No proper League of Nations representatives
Independence:
-Visit to and from Japan.
-Start diplomatic service
-Send Keith Officer
-Suggest Pacific Non-Aggression Pact
World War 2: 1939-1941
Britain declares war and PM Menzies follows Britain into war without consulting cabinet (unlike South Africa and Canada who both debated the issue in parliament).
1941 PM Menzies concerned that Britain was worried only about her own defence (not the defence of its Pacific Colonies) requested an Imperial War Cabinet, but this was rejected.
December 7 1941 Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbour meant Australia was directly threatened. It was obvious that Britain was fighting for its own survival in Europe and couldn’t protect Australia.
December 27 1941 PM Curtin announced Australia now looked to the US free of any ties to Britain.
Dependence:
-No separate war declaration
-Imperial War Cabinet request rejected
Independence:
-Requesting an Imperial War Cabinet be formed
-Australia changing its policy and now looking to the US, not Britain for help
-Australia looked to America in 1941 because of:
-Fear of Japanese invasion and Britain couldn’t help
-British only had base at Singapore for Australian defences
-US closer at hand for defence especially after Pearl Harbour
Australian Prime Ministers (Ignoring Caretakers)
1941-1945: John Curtin Labor
1945-1949: Ben Chifley Labor
1949-1966: Robert Menzies Liberal
1967-1968: Harold Holt Liberal
1968-1971: John Gorton Liberal
1971-1972: William McMahon Liberal
1972-1975: Gough Whitlam Labor
1975-1983: Malcolm Fraser Liberal
1983-1991: Bob Hawke Labor
1991-1996: Paul Keating Labor
1996-2007: John Howard Liberals
2007- Kevin Rudd Labor
1941-1948: The Labor Years
John Curtin 1941-1945
Came to power on the 7th of October 1941 and was called upon to lead Australia through the greatest crisis in history: The Australian navy had suffered severe losses, Pearl Harbour had been bombed, Japan was advancing through Asia, Australia mainland was under attack and Australia was now fighting in Europe and the Pacific.
In response Curtin: Requested US assistance, demanded Australia be heard by both Britain and the US and demanded the return of Australian troops from the Middle-East.
Initially not everyone agreed with Curtin’s decisions but within weeks Britain’s weakness in the Pacific became obvious to us with the fall of Singapore in February 1941.
Both Churchill and Roosevelt tried to convince Curtin to change his mind about recalling troops but eventually Churchill gave in.
Curtin’s foreign minister was Dr. Evatt (also retained by Chifley) and developed a strongly independent foreign policy.
1942 Statute of Westminster ratified by the Australian government.
1942 Persuaded the UK and the US to establish the Pacific War Council in which Australia spoke with equal weight.
In 1944 establishes agreement with NZ to be involved in the development and protection of the south-west Pacific.
Died in office on the 5th of July just 6 weeks before the end of the war in the Pacific.
The Chifley Government 1945-1949
Doc Evatt retained as foreign minister who:
1945 Helped set up Allied Control Council whose job was to help rebuild Japan.
Influential voice in setting up the UN and was elected in 1948 as President of the UN general assembly.
1947 Assisted Indonesia and Holland to come to agreement about Indonesian independence.
Assisted the development of Papua New Guinea.
Under Chifley foreign policy became a lot more independent.
The opposition leader Menzies criticised Evatt’s policy, especially our reliance on the UN for security. Menzies believed Australia was too small to be fully independent and should not risk offending its powerful friends.
Menzies 1949-1966
Major foreign policy events and initiatives:
Cold War
ANZUS
Malaysia
Conscription
Colombo plan
Irian Jaya
Vietnam War
Korean War
ANZAM
Forward Defence
Didn’t consider UN most important body to maintain world peace.
Claimed it was a waste of time for Australia to have a policy of independence and insisted we should try to acquire great and powerful friends.
Although a great supporter of the Queen, Menzies realised the US was now the greatest power in the Pacific, was aware of the developing Cold War state and was fearful of the re-emergence of Japanese power. Thus he sought a military pact with the US in late 1949 (unfortunately the US was more concerned with the Korean War).
1949 China becomes communist and Australia follows US lead in refusing to acknowledge the communist government.
1949 ANZAM: Australia, New Zealand and Malayan Area – Not a formal agreement, an understanding to coordinate defence of sea and air communication in the region.
1949 Indonesia gains independence and Australia is very supportive of the Indonesians. In 1950 Australia co-sponsors Indonesia’s admission into the UN and Indonesia is forever grateful for this support.
1950 Colombo Plan set up through the Commonwealth of Nation to provide economic and educational assistance to developing countries in South-East Asia. Considered part of our non-military defence plan) despite the fact that the restricted immigration policy continued).
1950 Korean War begins and Australia is extremely concerned about security in the region and anti-communist paranoia is raised to feverish pitch. Australia’s involvement in the war is officially to help and protect Korea from communism, but also due to MacArthur requesting our support for the US and the UN requesting our involvement. Australia (looking to gain regional security agreements) was the first nation after the US to commit troops to Korea.
1951 ANZUS treaty is established (ratified 1952) because: the US wanted Australian support to conclude their peace treaty with Japan, Australia wanted a formal US commitment to Pacific security and also as a gesture of thanks for Australian support in the Korean War. The Australian government received a lot of criticism because the US was not bound to defend Australia and we might be drawn into new conflicts. It is the first time Australia commits to a security agreement without Britain. ANZUS is a non-automatic response treaty.
1954 Cold War tension reaches fever pitch in Australia with the Petrov Affair.
1954 SEATO established to try and stem communist expansion. Although European countries and European colonies were involved, it strengthened the US/Australian alliance as the US agreed to protect members if they were attacked by a communist nation.
1955 As a member of SEATO and ANZAM, Australia agreed to station military units in Malaysia. This becomes the basics of forward defence.
Relations with Japan improve due to extensive trade but Australia still refuses to recognise communist China even though it bought vast amounts of Australian wheat and wool.
Realised that, as a near neighbour, friendly relations with Indonesia were important, but has problems as:
Sukarno (Indonesian ruler) is suspected of being a pro-communist and displayed aggressive expansionary tendencies (made Australia nervous as we thought we were next on the agenda).
Indonesia tries to gain control of Irian Jaya (Western Papua New Guinea) which still belonged to the Dutch. By 1961 Sukarno having gained equipment from the USSR was on the brink of war with the Dutch.
Indonesian opposition to the formation of Malaysia with Sukarno launching a policy of confrontation (close to a state of war) to force the Malaysia to become a part of Indonesia.
1962 Australian involvement in Vietnam began when Menzies suggested to the US he send 30 advisors (Menzies action in response to fear of the Domino theory).
1963 Indonesia gains Irian Jaya and Australia voices its disapproval.
1964 Vietnam War escalates and so does Australian commitment. This combined with perceived communist threat led to it being stated that conscription was needed to fulfil Australian obligations to ensure security. Conscription in Australia is therefore introduced.
1964 Trade agreement reached with Indonesia.
1965 Menzies sends battalion of 1500 men to Vietnam.
1965 Sukarno’s fall from power and the reestablishment of political stability in Indonesia meant Australian fears subsided.
1966 Menzies retires from office – he is the longest serving PM in Australian history.
Harold Holt 1966-1967
Put most of his energies into dealing with the Vietnam War.
First action was to send 3000 troops to Vietnam which included conscripted national servicemen.
Determined to help America win the war by promising ‘All the way with LBJ.’
Vietnam caused a great split in Australian society.
John Gorton 1968-1971
Vietnam caused his biggest problems as a strong anti-Vietnam War movement had developed despite the fact that most Australian’s were against communism.
Anti-Vietnam campaign included both high school and university students and involved burning draft notices and refusal to register as public protests.
1971 to avoid demonstrations and conflict Australian troops return from Vietnam in the dead of night.
Gorton lost the leadership after a challenge by Billy McMahon.
William McMahon 1971-1972
Conflict remained in the party and McMahon faced many problems
Communist China was one of Australia’s major wheat buyers but was still unrecognised as the true government of China.
Vietnam War was dragging on even though the USA was decreasing its involvement.
Gough Whitlam 1972-1975
Wanted Australia to be independent especially from the US.
Withdrew remaining 100 troops from Vietnam and abolished conscription.
1971 visited China while still Labor opposition leader and then in 1973 as Prime Minister.
1972 officially recognised communist China and the first Australian Ambassador to China was appointed.
Ended the White Australia Policy.
1975 Granted full independence to Papua New Guinea.
Encouraged better relations with Indonesia) ratified border agreements, increased defence cooperation and sale and supply of weapons, second largest aid recipient) but ignored the human rights breaches.
Largely ignored the Indonesian invasion of East Timor
Demanded a reassessment of the anti-communist SEATO which lead to its demise, in line with this reduced number of troops involved in forward defence but maintained ANZUS.
Malcolm Fraser 1975-1983
1976 Basic Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation between Australia and Japan – recognised interests of both nations lay in being reliable suppliers and markets for each other.
Further improved and increased the relationship with China.
1978 Australia recognised East Timor as part of Indonesia but was unhappy with its humanitarian record and use of military force.
Continued to support ANZUS and worked on improving Australia/US relations.
Strongly condemned Afghanistan invasion by the USSR and saw USSR as a threat to Australian defence.
Strong supporter of CHOGM – Commonwealth Heads Of Government Meeting.
Maintained financial support given to Papua New Guinea.
Wanted a strong working relationship with Asian nations and supported ASEAN – Association of South East Asian Nations.
Accepted thousands of refugees and boat people into Australia despite public opinion being against it.
Bob Hawke 1983-1991
1983 deplores use of force and Timorese inability to exercise self-determination but accepts that it is a part of Indonesia.
1986 relations strained due to newspaper article on Suharto’s personal finances.
1989 Timor Gap Zone Cooperation Treaty – improves relations.
1991 Dili massacre plunged relations with Australia condemning in strongest terms Indonesia’s “excessive use of force.”
Australian defence spending heightened tensions with Indonesia stating it raises possible scepticism of Australia’s seriousness in security cooperation of the region.
Visited Indonesia only once during time in office.
By the early 1990s Australia and Japan had a close economic relationship
1991 Australia encourages the re-entry of Japan into security commitments.
1989 Tiananmen Square Massacre plunges relations to an all new low.
1991 relations with China are renewed, trade picked up and Australia has given substantial development assistance.
Supported the US and UN in the Gulf War.
Worked towards Australia becoming more self-reliant in its defence and security.
Initiated APEC – promoted trade and investment between the members
Committed to Australian multiculturalism
Paul Keating 1991-1996
Continuation of Hawke’s foreign policy.
Acknowledged Suharto as a foreign statesman but that Australia supported the principles of human rights.
Aimed at becoming more closely integrated into the Asia-Pacific region.
John Howard 1996-2007
Closer engagement with Asia has been a major priority in particular improving trade.
Strengthened the US/Australian alliance.
Tightened the immigration policy.
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