King Arthur Legend Essay

Evidence for Merlin's existence

The Legend of King Arthur has left historians wondering for centuries whether the characters and events of these stories were based on real historical occurrences. “The fifth century, when Arthur and Merlin are said to have lived, is an historical period steeped in mystery,” (Phillips, G. 2005) due to the few written records which have survived. However, authors today continue to produce numerous texts detailing the exploits of this famous figure. Yet how much of these writings are based on historically verifiable evidence and are not merely figments of the author’s imagination? The purpose of this essay will be to assess the historical veracity of a fictitious work relating to the Arthurian period. The evidence behind the representation of Merlin in the book Arthur and the Seeing Stone by Kevin Crossley-Holland will be the focus of this investigation. In this novel Merlin is portrayed as a wise prophet with mystical powers who served Vortigern and watches over Arthur. However this representation is typical of that found in sources written centuries after the events, “in the middle ages, when the story of Merlin was popularized in the so-called Arthurian Romances, romantic tales first written in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. (Phillips, G. 2005) It is therefore possible to hypothesise that the historically verifiable basis for the representation of Merlin is undermined by elements of pure fantasy. This point may be argued based on the grounds of Merlin’s representation in the novel as a prophet, servant of Vortigern, and finally as a supernatural being.

Merlin’s portrayal as a prophet in the novel is based on historical evidence that is undermined by elements of pure fantasy. In Arthur and the Seeing Stone he is represented as being able to foretell the future, with such statements as: “‘The king is dying,’ said Merlin.” (Crossley-Holland 2000, p.52) However, this representation is difficult to historically verify, because Merlin is only referenced in passing in most Dark Age manuscripts. “The first author to provide any actual detail concerning Merlin's life was the Welsh cleric Geoffrey of Monmouth who wrote in the 1130s.” (Phillips, G. 2005) In his History of the British Kings, Geoffrey of Monmouth describes him as “Merlin, the prophet of Vortigern.” (University of Rochester. 2008) He recorded a number of prophesises made by Merlin, including those about the kings of Britain. Geoffrey wrote how Merlin exclaimed: “Aurelius Ambrosius shall be crowned. He shall bring peace to the nation; he shall restore the churches; but shall die of poison. His brother Uther Pendragon shall succeed him.” (University of Rochester. 2008) It is possible to disregard the writings of Geoffrey of Monmouth, as he wrote this account hundreds of years after the events he described and has been largely “vilified as an inexorable forger who made up his stories.” (Ford, D. 2007) However, they should not be dismissed entirely, as “there are also hints that he had access to at least one other work unknown to us today.” (Ford, D. 2007) Furthermore the basis of Geoffrey’s character of Merlin can be traced back to earlier sources. It is possible that Geoffrey based his character Merlin on a real life prophet in Britain. The historical foundation for Merlin’s portrayal as a prophet first appeared “in extant records (Armes Prydein, Y Gododdin) from the early 10th century.” (Ford, D. 2001) In the Armes Prydein it is stated how “Myrdin foretells these will meet, In Aber Peryddon, the stewards of the kings; And though there be no right of slaughter they complain.” (Jones, M. 2008) Myrdin is Welsh for Merlin, and this source remains the earliest reference to this individual, dating “on linguistic and historic grounds to ca. 930 CE.” (Jones, H. 1997) Although written many years after the events described, it is possible that Merlin was a real prophet during the Dark Ages. This view is backed up in the Gododdin, where it is stated: “Morien defended the fair song of Myrddin and laid the head of a chief in the earth.” (Jones, H. 1997) This fair song could have been a prophesy by Merlin, and while this source was also not written during the Dark Ages, both these early records of a prophet called Merlin give the impression that the legend is based on a genuine person who went down in history as legend. Merlin’s portrayal as a prophet in the novel is based some historically verifiable evidence that has been undermined by fantasy.

The representation of Merlin as a servant of Vortigern has an historical basis that is undermined by pure fantasy. In Arthur and the Seeing Stone, Merlin states: “‘When Vortigern wanted to build a castle, it was I who told him to drain the pool under its foundations.’” (Crossley-Holland 2000, p.202) However, is the evidence behind this representation of Merlin historically verifiable? For it was Geoffrey of Monmouth who originally recorded how Merlin helped the British King Vortigern to build a fortress by uncovering the dragons that were underneath the foundations. He wrote how Merlin exclaimed: “Command the pond to be drained, and at the bottom you will see two hollow stones, and in them two dragons asleep.” (University of Rochester. 2008) Although this source was written hundreds of years after the Dark Ages when Merlin would have existed and “the dragon story was obviously an invention,” (Phillips, G. 2005) Nennius, an earlier historian recorded a similar story. However, instead of Merlin assisting Vortigern, it is Ambrosius Aurelius. As Nennius wrote: “What is your name?" asked the king: "I am called Ambrose... A Roman consul was my father.” (Halsall, P. 1996) Although this eighth century historian has been criticised by modern historians as being “unrestrainedly inventive, not all of Nennius can be dismissed as he apparently had access to no-longer available 5th century sources. (Halsall, P. 1996) Although the story is obviously fantasy, Ambrosius Aurelius was a real historical figure and the “works of Geoffrey of Monmouth and Nennius taken together imply that Merlin was originally thought to be him.” (Phillips, G. 2005) Ambrosius Aurelius has been recorded in history as uniting the Britons and driving out the Saxons. As Gildas recorded, “The poor remnants of our nation... took arms under the conduct of Ambrosius Aurelianus, a modest man, who of all the Roman nation was then alone in the confusion of this troubled period by chance left alive.” (Halsall, P. 1996) Although this source was written by a monk and in line with his religious beliefs, it was nonetheless recorded at the time of the events and remains the “only substantial source which survives from the time of the Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain.” (Halsall, P. 1996) The representation of Merlin as a servant of Vortigern is based on fantasy with a slight historical basis. The exploits of Ambrosius could have been the basis for character Merlin and the stories about him being a servant of Vortigern.

The portrayal of Merlin as a mystic with supernatural powers has an historical basis which has been embellished by later writers. In the novel Arthur and the Seeing Stone, Merlin is described as being the son of an incubus and using his powers to spirit “the Giant’s Ring from Ireland to England, after a whole army of Britons were unable to move it.” (Crossley-Holland 2000, p.202) This representation of Merlin is based on the writings of Geoffrey of Monmouth, who wrote how “Between the moon and the earth inhabit those spirits, which we will call incubuses... Perhaps one of them appeared to this woman, and begot that young man of her." (University of Rochester. 2008) This representation of Merlin as a supernatural being was reinforced by Geoffrey when he stated: “He ordered Merlin to set up the stones brought over from Ireland, about the sepulcher; which he accordingly did.” (University of Rochester. 2008) Although this story is obviously fictitious, the historical basis of this portrayal of Merlin could have been the real life character Ambrosius Aurelius. The similarities between Ambrosius Aurelius and the Merlin are uncanny. “Like Merlin, he united Britain in the period after Vortigern's reign: both Gildas and Bede say that he successfully halted the invasion of Britain in the last few decades of the fifth century.” (Phillips, G. 2005) Archaeology has shown that when the Roman legions departed members of the Aurelius family remained in Britain. (Phillips, G. 2005) The Hoxne Hoard (See Appendix A) was owned by them and “packed in wooden boxes… in the very last days of the Roman occupation of Britain.” (Britannia. 2001) The fact that Ambrosius Aurelius remained behind and led the resistance would have made him legendary, and his powers could have been greatly exaggerated by later historians. As the historian Bede wrote,“They had at that time for their leader, Ambrosius Aurelius... [who] had survived the storm, in which his parents, who were of the royal race, had perished. Under him the Britons revived, and offering battle to the victors, by the help of God, came off victorious.” (Alan, S. 2007) Although this source was written almost 200 years after the events it described, it is regarded as one of the most accurate sources from this time period. Ambrosius Aurelius’ role in British history would have made him legendary, and later writers would embellish his story until he became the legendary Merlin.

The Merlin of Kevin Crossley-Holland’s book Arthur and the Seeing Stone, is depicted as “Arthur's adviser, prophet and magician, [and yet this] is basically the creation of Geoffrey of Monmouth.” (Lupack, A. 2008) While the representation of Merlin in the novel as a prophet, servant of Vortigern, and finally as a supernatural being does have an historically verifiable basis, it is undermined by elements of pure fantasy.

Appendices 

Appendix A: Britannia. (2001). The Hoxne Hoard. Retrieved 2008

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Annotated Bibliography

Alan, S. (2007). Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation. Retrieved 2008

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The author of this website had his name clearly visible, on a site hosting the works of Bede in its entirety. The information was very useful and relative as it was a reproduction of a primary source that is always relevant. The website was updated last year and its coverage was excellent, supplying dozens of pages of Bede’s writings. I found this source extremely useful for my assignment and would thoroughly recommend it.

Britannia. (2001). The Hoxne Hoard. Retrieved 2008

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Britania is a reputable organisation that acts as an online encyclopaedia. It was referenced by one of my other sources and I found it to be extremely useful. It was posted in 2001 but is still relevant as it describes an archaeological find made in 1992. It was written in a factual and neutral manner with no bias evident in the text. The topic was covered in great detail.

Ford, D. (2001). Merlin. Retrieved 2008

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This source examined Merlin as an individual in history and I found it extremely useful. It was written without any bias evident and referenced an extensive range of sources. The website was last updated in 2001 so it is still current and relevant. It covers the topic in great detail and I found it extremely useful and a great help with my essay. The author’s name was clearly visible.

Ford, D. (2007). Geoffrey of Monmouth. Retrieved 2008

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The author of this website had his name clearly visible, and as this source had been last updated last year, it is very current and relevant. This source examines the authenticity of the works of Geoffrey of Monmouth, and was written in a neutral and factual manner with no bias evident in the text. It covered the topic in great detail and I found this source extremely useful and would recommend it.

Halsall, P. (1996). Medieval Sourcebook. Retrieved 2008

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This source provided a collection of primary sources who wrote about the period in which King Arthur may have lived, including Gildas and Nennius. While this website is 12 years old, the primary sources are as still very useful and relevant to the topic. The author assessed the veracity of each source and this was written in a neutral manner with no bias evident. This resource covered the topic in great detail and I found it extremely useful for my essay.

Jones, H. (1997). Concerning the Name Myrddin. Retrieved 2008

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The author of this source had a bibliography and his name was clearly visible. It was written in a factual manner with no bias evident. It covered the topic in great detail and referred to two primary sources in the text that I later drew on in my essay. This website was last updated 11 years ago but it was still useful and relevant as the information that it provided was based around the primary sources that it described. This resource excellently covered the topic and I found it extremely useful for my essay.

Jones, M. (2008). Armes Prydein. Retrieved 2008

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This source contained a primary source and the author of this website had his name clearly visible. It is very current as it was last updated this year. It completely covers this source in its entirety and I found it very useful and relevant to my assignment.

Lupack, A. (2008). Merlin Retrieved 2008

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This website is very current as it was last updated just this year. The author’s name was clearly visible and no bias was evident in the text as it was written in a neutral and unbiased manner. It did not list a bibliography but the information that it detailed was in concurrence with the other sources I examined. It provided a very small amount of coverage of the topic but I found it extremely useful regardless and would recommend it as an excellent source.

Phillips, G. (2005). Merlin – The Man behind the Myth. Retrieved 2008

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I found this source extremely useful for my assignment. It provided me with an enormous amount of information and gave me ideas that I later used whilst writing and planning my assignment. The author of this website had his name clearly visible and it was written in a factual manner with no bias evident. It lists a range of sources in its bibliography and is very current as it was last updated only a few years ago.

University of Rochester. (2008). Arthurian Passages From The History Of The Kings Of Britain. Retrieved 2008 from Source

This resource was published by the University of Rochester, which is a reputable source and had its name clearly visible. This website contained a primary resource from the middle ages on King Arthur, and while its coverage was not complete, as it was selected passages, it was still extremely useful and relevant. This source was last updated this year and I referenced it numerous times in my essay.